Executive Order 9981:
The Desegregation of the Armed Forces

Executive Order 9981, issued by President Harry S. Truman on July 26, 1948, was a landmark directive that called for the desegregation of the United States Armed Forces. This executive order marked a significant step towards racial equality in the military and had far-reaching implications for the broader civil rights movement in America. This comprehensive article explores the historical context, the drafting and issuance of the order, its implementation, impact, and legacy, as well as its role in the ongoing struggle for civil rights.

Historical Context

Racial Segregation in the Military

Prior to the issuance of Executive Order 9981, the U.S. military was deeply segregated. African American soldiers were often relegated to separate units and assigned menial tasks, regardless of their skills or capabilities. This segregation mirrored the broader societal norms of racial discrimination that were prevalent in the United States, particularly in the South. African Americans in the military faced not only institutionalized racism but also hostility and violence from their white counterparts and superiors.

During World War II, more than one million African Americans served in the armed forces. Despite their significant contributions, they continued to face discrimination and were largely excluded from combat roles. The irony of fighting for freedom abroad while being denied basic rights at home was not lost on African American servicemen and women. The experiences of these soldiers during the war heightened awareness and resentment of racial inequalities, fueling demands for change.

Post-War Civil Rights Activism

The end of World War II saw a surge in civil rights activism. African American veterans returned home determined to fight for the rights they had been denied. Organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) intensified their efforts to challenge segregation and discrimination. The Double V Campaign, launched during the war to advocate for victory against fascism abroad and racism at home, gained momentum in the post-war years.

The post-war period also saw significant political changes. President Harry S. Truman, who assumed office after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945, faced mounting pressure to address civil rights issues. Although Truman had initially shown little interest in civil rights, the political climate and growing demands from African American voters and civil rights organizations prompted him to take action.

Drafting and Issuance of Executive Order 9981

The President’s Committee on Civil Rights

In December 1946, President Truman established the President’s Committee on Civil Rights, tasked with examining the state of civil rights in the United States and making recommendations for improvement. The committee’s report, “To Secure These Rights,” published in October 1947, highlighted widespread racial discrimination and called for comprehensive federal action to address civil rights abuses.

The report was a critical document that laid the groundwork for subsequent civil rights initiatives, including the desegregation of the military. It provided a compelling argument for the need to eliminate racial discrimination and underscored the moral and practical reasons for desegregating the armed forces.

Political Pressure and Advocacy

The push for desegregation of the military was also driven by political pressure and advocacy from civil rights leaders and organizations. A. Philip Randolph, a prominent labor and civil rights leader, played a key role in this effort. Randolph had previously pressured President Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802 in 1941, which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry. In the post-war period, he continued to advocate for the desegregation of the military.

In 1948, Randolph threatened to organize a mass protest against military segregation, similar to the proposed March on Washington that had led to Executive Order 8802. This threat, combined with growing public support for civil rights, increased pressure on Truman to take decisive action.

Truman’s Decision

Faced with mounting pressure and recognizing the moral imperative, President Truman decided to issue an executive order to desegregate the armed forces. On July 26, 1948, he signed Executive Order 9981, declaring that “there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin.”

Implementation of Executive Order 9981

The Fahy Committee

To oversee the implementation of Executive Order 9981, Truman established the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, commonly known as the Fahy Committee, named after its chairman, Charles Fahy. The committee was responsible for ensuring that the military complied with the order and that desegregation was carried out effectively.

The Fahy Committee faced significant resistance from within the military, particularly from high-ranking officers who were opposed to desegregation. The committee’s work involved extensive consultations, policy reviews, and the development of strategies to promote integration. Despite the challenges, the Fahy Committee made steady progress in pushing the military towards compliance with the executive order.

Gradual Progress and Challenges

The implementation of Executive Order 9981 was a gradual process, with varying degrees of progress across different branches of the military. The Air Force and the Navy moved relatively quickly towards integration, while the Army, with its larger and more entrenched institutional structures, lagged behind.

Resistance to desegregation persisted, particularly among officers and personnel who held deeply ingrained racial prejudices. However, the growing need for manpower during the Korean War (1950-1953) provided a practical impetus for integration. The exigencies of war required the efficient utilization of all available personnel, accelerating the process of desegregation.

 Successes and Setbacks

By the mid-1950s, significant progress had been made in desegregating the military. Integrated units became more common, and African American servicemen began to receive opportunities for advancement and leadership positions. However, the process was not without setbacks. Instances of racial discrimination and tension persisted, and the full realization of equality in the military remained a work in progress.

Impact and Legacy of Executive Order 9981

Advancements in Civil Rights

Executive Order 9981 had a profound impact on the broader civil rights movement. It demonstrated that federal action could effectively address racial discrimination and set a precedent for subsequent civil rights legislation. The order also provided a significant boost to the morale and aspirations of African Americans, both within and outside the military.

The successful desegregation of the armed forces helped to challenge and dismantle other forms of institutionalized racism. It paved the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, landmark laws that addressed racial discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and voting.

Influences on Military Culture and Policy

The desegregation of the military brought about lasting changes in military culture and policy. It fostered a more inclusive and diverse armed forces, where opportunities for advancement were based on merit rather than race. The experiences of African American servicemen and women in an integrated military helped to break down racial barriers and promote mutual respect and understanding.

The military’s commitment to equality and diversity continued to evolve in the decades following Executive Order 9981. Subsequent policies and initiatives have sought to address issues such as gender discrimination, sexual orientation, and the integration of women and LGBTQ+ individuals into the armed forces.

Broader Societal Impacts

The desegregation of the military had broader societal impacts, influencing public attitudes towards race and equality. The military’s example of integration provided a powerful model for other institutions, including schools, workplaces, and government agencies. It demonstrated that diversity and inclusion were not only possible but also beneficial for organizational effectiveness and cohesion.

The visibility and success of African American servicemen and women in the military also challenged stereotypes and prejudices, contributing to a gradual shift in societal attitudes. The achievements of African American military personnel, including those who rose to high ranks and received commendations for their service, showcased their capabilities and dedication to the nation.

Continuing Challenges and Future Directions

Ongoing Issues of Racial Inequality

While Executive Order 9981 marked a significant milestone, ongoing issues of racial inequality and discrimination persist within the military and society at large. Incidents of racial bias, disparities in promotion and retention rates, and the underrepresentation of African Americans in certain military roles highlight the need for continued vigilance and action.

Efforts to Address Inequality

The military has implemented various initiatives to address these challenges, including diversity and inclusion training, mentorship programs, and policies aimed at promoting equal opportunity. However, achieving true equality requires a sustained commitment to addressing systemic issues and fostering an environment where all personnel can thrive.

The Role of Leadership

Leadership plays a crucial role in advancing the goals of equality and inclusion. Military leaders at all levels must actively promote and uphold the principles of diversity, equity, and inclusion. By setting the tone and leading by example, they can help to create a culture that values and respects the contributions of all service members.

Final Summary

Executive Order 9981 was a watershed moment in the history of the United States, marking the beginning of the end of racial segregation in the armed forces. Issued by President Harry S. Truman in 1948, the order set in motion a process of integration that would transform the military and contribute significantly to the broader civil rights movement. Despite facing considerable resistance and challenges, the desegregation of the military demonstrated the power of federal action to promote equality and justice.

References

– Dalfiume, R. M. (1969). Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1953. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.

– MacGregor, M. J. (1981). Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

– Nalty, B. C. (1986). Strength for the Fight: A History of Black Americans in the Military. New York, NY: Free Press.

– Mershon, S., & Schlossman, S. L. (1998). Foxholes and Color Lines: Desegregating the U.S. Armed Forces. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

– Clayton, L. A., & Jones, L. J. (2009). Black Warriors: The Buffalo Soldiers of World War II. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press.

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